Month: January 2022

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Narrative Technique in Emily Bronte Wuthering Heights

The novel of Wuthering Heights has complicated narrative structures where there are two narrators. Mr. Lockwood is also a narrator as well as Nelly Dean .Emily Bronte have actually warped the time and brokedown the traditional flow of linear time in her novel which was unconventional during her time.

She showed the fluidity of time where time becomes relative reflecting Einstein’s theory of relativity.Bronte was able to project the past and present time of a particular place Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange where one could find the different time frame references flowing in the novel.

Mr. Lockwood’s narration is the present time reference of the action and events that happens at present moment and Nelly Dean’s narration is the past time reference of the actions and events that happened before the arrival of Mr. Lockwood. This flow of past and present references at different scales of time references is what Einstein called it as relativity where time being relative or simply the time frame references depending on one’s observations. 

Bronte’s presentation of story of the relationship between Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange is based on the observation of Lockwood’s narration and Nelly Dean’s narration. Lockwood’s narration of the mansion of Wuthering Heights and the characters mental state is completely different from the observations that Nelly Dean’s narrates about the past time references of Wuthering Heights to Lockwood. Lockwood initially only tries to convince himself the narration of Nelly Dean to be true and the reality. The duality of different time frame references makes the novel perceive it from a different lens as it tracks the development of characters from the past to the present. 

Lockwood’s narration is completely the present time frame references and he gives a subjective remarks on the characters inhabited in the mansion of Wuthering Heights. His first conversation with Heathcliff and other characters create a sense of uncomfortable and uneasy experiences. He calls Heathcliff an unfriendly person and also hates the gloomy atmosphere of Wuthering Heights.

As Nelly’s narration is of the past time frame references where Lockwood is able to switch back to the past and see the past time references of Wuthering Heights . This is where relativity stands in the novel. However , Nelly tells Lockwood the entire story about the story of Heathcliff and even mentions other characters such as Hindley , Catherine , Edgar and Isabella’s story and their interwoven love stories. It is a dark romance where Heathcliff and Catherine were supposed to be siblings but they developed a sense of emotional bond that is beyond the physical love but rather a platonic love.

The Thrushcross Grange which Lockwood takes it as a rent also has a story and Nelly’s narration gives an insight into the past of Thrushcross Grange. Edgar and Isabella Linton lived in the mansion of Thrushcross Grange and Bronte warps the time of second generation in a clear and vivid wild imagination through Nelly Dean who was a complete observer and a witness to many incidents that occured between these two houses.

According to Nelly’s Narration , the mansion of Wuthering Heights resembles a savage and tempestuous nurturing of human civilization whereas the mansion of Thrushcross Grange resembles a civilized society and brighter side of human beings. From a psychological level , the house itself shows the duality of human self where Wuthering Heights shows the dark side of human beings and Thrushcross Grange shows the bright side of human beings. Bronte seems to invoke a sense of conflict between these two selves where the repressed desires of Heathcliff eventually overthrow everyone from the two generations leading to revenge and severe heartbreaks.

The narration is completely wild and unbelievable to some extent to Lockwood as he certainly is trying to relate the past events to the present situation. In the beginning of the novel itself , he becomes conscious of Heathcliff’s character and the attitude of other characters as well. This level of consciousness thought imbued in Lockwood makes him convinced that Nelly’s narrations are true and precise of the events.

The narration is structured beautifully where the past events and stories weaved internally into diaries and letters. It can be seen where Lockwood sees the diary of Catherine Earnshaw where he is able to see the time frame references of past where Catherine is mad at Hindley for making Catherine and Heathcliff listen to Mr. Joseph’s sermons.

From the diary itself , Lockwood is able to see the picture of Hindley who is abusive towards Heathcliff which is actually true from the narration of Nelly where Hindley was abusive and brutal towards Heathcliff. The letters of Isabella also show that Heathcliff and Isabella’s marriage was abusive where Isabella regrets the marriage and Heathcliff neve loved her. This aspect of narration also gives a time of different references from the past to the event that led after Isabella and Heathcliff got married and to the childhood days of Hindley , Catherine and Heathcliff.

Brontë also uses framing device in the novel. It is a narration where the stories are shared by the characters to other characters or they learn from letters or diaries to gain insights into different layers of information. The story is actually being narrated by a character named Lockwood, who visits the estate and discovers the tale of Heathcliff and Catherine through the diaries and journals of other characters. It is thorough these the readers peer through their lives through Lockwood’s eyes. This framing device adds an extra layer of mystery and suspense to the story.

The other element of framing device is Nelly Dean’s narration to Mr. Lockwood which indeed becomes a part of the framing device. Nelly Dean, who is a servant at Wuthering Heights, tells the story to Mr. Lockwood, who is the one visiting the estate. Nelly’s narration acts as a bridge between the past events and the present, allowing us to delve into the lives of the characters. It is just the readers able to gaze and listen to Nelly’s firsthand account of what happened, adding depth and perspective to the story. So, Nelly’s narration is an essential part of the framing device in the novel.

Narrative Technique in Mary Shelley Frankenstein

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Character Sketch of Bosola in The Duchess of Malfi

Bosola is the villainous character to some extent in the play of The Duchess of Malfi. He is a villain and a detective character used by Ferdinand to spy on his daughter the Duchess regarding her remarriage to Antonio. Ferdinand and Cardinal have strictly warned the Duchess not to remarry as it will bring shame and lower the reputation of the royal status. Ferdinand hires Bosola inorder to watch over the actions of the Duchess where Ferdinand tells Bosola to manage the horses of the Duchess but he was a spy in disguise used by Ferdinand to give information regarding the actions of the Duchess. 

Bosola as a character is Machiavellian and shows the manipulative sensibility. He was able to gain trust and loyalty of the Duchess. He was able to make the Duchess feel comfortable in front of him that he pretends to take care of the Duchess. When he becomes suspicious of the Duchess pregnancy , he immediately gives apricots to her knowing that apricots can cause labor pain. When his suspects become clearer, he sends information to Ferdinand regarding the pregnancy of the Duchess and her betrayal of remaining a widow. He was able to manipulate and trick the Duchess into his side showing his excessive Machiavellian traits and skills. 

Bosola’s innermost character is also revealed in the play. Though he sided with the bad actions of the antagonist namely Cardinal and Ferdinand yet his compassion towards another human being is instituted in the play. Bosola sympathizes the Duchess who was kept in the prison and being abused by Ferdinand. Bosola demands to stop the abuse and mistreatment of the Duchess but Ferdinand did not listen to him while ordering the Executioners to execute the Duchess. This development of character led Bosola to become naive and his Machiavellian traits and skills gradually subtracts in the play as he becomes unaware of what Ferdinand and Cardinal plots against him. 

Bosola is also an active agent of revenge tragedy in the play. He was a catalyst in the beginning forbthe development of revenge tragedy and the downfall for the Duchess. As he sends out information about the Duchess to both the brothers the Duchess downfall was evident due to him. Bosola also took revenge on both Ferdinand and Cardinal as he was betrayed by Ferdinand and he goes up to Cardinal to know if he is involved with the murder of the Duchess but Cardinal manipulates him for rewards if he kills Antonio. Cardinal completely manipulates Bosola and though Bosola was highly aware of it , his Machiavellian traits substracts and he accidentally wounds Antonio and visits Cardinal’s room stabbing him and Ferdinand who had gone mad while looking at the sister’s dead body. Ferdinand stabs Bosola to death and hence the three characters dies at the end of the play. 

Bosola’s inner tragic flaw was of the lack of knowledge. Of he have enough knowledge about Cardinal and Ferdinand s motive then he would have survived and killed them before they killed him. This also reflects the spirit of the age where knowledge was important and considered superior conscious power to understand the position of human beings and the cosmos. Bosola’s lack of judgement and naive in keeping the track of Ferdinand and Cardinal led to his tragic fall and it was too late when he found their inner reality. 

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The Duchess of Malfi as a Revenge Tragedy

The Duchess of Malfi (1623), written by John Webster is a revenge tragedy of the Jacobean drama. The Jacobean drama is heavily influenced by the Roman playwright Seneca and his play Thyestes. Seneca is a model for English Jacobean dramatists who includes horror, blood, murder staged with gloomy atmosphere of deaths. The play projects the Jacobean age of immorality and the lack of chivalrous attitude that was diminishing during the age. The play is said to have been based on the real story of the Duchess of Malfi named Giovanna d’Aragona.

As a revenge tragedy, the play projects the brutality of death and murder of the duchess of Malfi. The Duchess was killed by her own two brothers from not obeying the rules implanted on her regarding the remarriage. This also reflects the spirit of the Jacobean age which lack the spirit of chivalry anymore. As men usually protects and preserves the nation of the country but the lack of national appeal subtracts when men kills their own siblings and especially women for their own interests. Ferdinand is a man who intentionally did not want the Duchess to remarry as he wanted to inherit all the property to himself.

The revenge tragedy is a direct influence of Senecan model. The torture and brutal death of the Duchess shows the heavy influence from his tragedy. Both Ferdinand and Bosola tortures the Duchess mentally for disobeying their rules regarding the marriage. She was killed by strangling her to death by the orders of the Cardinal given to Bosola. The horrific death of the Duchess as well as other murders committed by both Bosola and Ferdinand is wicked reflecting the Senecan elements of revenge tragedy.

Click Here to know Summary and Analysis of Chaucer’s The Parliament of Fowls

Summary of Ralph Ellison Invisible Man in Urdu

The important aspect of revenge tragedy is the element of Machiavellian characters. Ferdinand is a Machiavellian character in the play who deceives the Duchess as well as Bosola himself. Bosola was used as a mere puppet by him. Ferdinand’s Machiavellian traits shows that he is a man of practical sensibility where he engages with Bosola to manage the Duchess horse but Ferdinand used him to spy on the Duchess.

Bosola is a villain however in the play send by Ferdinand but she is also a Machiavellian character who tries to appear as a host to the Duchess but obeys commands of Ferdinand where he gives apricots to the Duchess to understand whether she is pregnant or not. Bosola was good in manipulating the Duchess and decides to take side with the Duchess when Ferdinand unleashes his wrath on the Duchess. Bosola gained trust of the Duchess and hence Bosola played along with the Duchess and Antonio where Antonio runs away with her eldest son and the other children and the Duchess was kept in captive by Bosola and his soldiers.

The play is a revenge tragedy because there are two revenge undertaken by the two brothers as well as Bosola. Bosola took revenge on both Cardinal and Ferdinand by stabbing them to death. It was Ferdinand who betrayed Bosola and he goes mad. Ferdinand’s mad turned worse and Bosola tries to plot against Ferdinand itself but first goes to Cardinal to know the truth of Cardinal’s involvement in the killing of the Duchess.

The Cardinal pretended and Bosola seems to be a greedy character who falls prey to the words of Cardinal who offers him reward to kill Antonio but he learned gradually about their character and decides to kill Julia to make Cardinal speak the truth. Julia was ultimately killed by Cardinal himself and hence Bosola killed Cardinal in his room and Ferdinand stabs him while resulting in Bosola stabbing Ferdinand to death. This scene is a reflection of Senecan revenge tragedy filled with horror , blood and murder. Hence the play can be considered as a revenge tragedy as the one who takes revenge on other characters die and also the victims of revenge.

Summary of William Wordsworth poem Simon Lee

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Themes in The Duchess of Malfi

Click Here to know Tennyson Poem Tithonus as a Dramatic Monologue

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Critical Analysis of Thomas Hardy’s The Voice Poem

In ‘The Voice’ Hardy hears Emma calling to him, saying that now she is as Hardy first knew her at their meeting in March 1870 in Cornwall where Emma lived. He questions whether it really is Emma that he hears, or is it only the breeze blowing that he mistakes for her voice.

Although the poem is obviously addressed to Emma and is written in the autobiographical first person, Hardy does not name her, referring to her as ‘Woman much missed,’ and ‘you’. He opens the poem with a strongly accented series of dactyls (strong light light), a falling rhythm that conveys his yearning. The emphasis is thrown conspicuously onto the key words: ‘woman’, ‘missed’, ‘call’, ‘call’, ‘now’, ‘not’, ‘were’. Even in the first line there is clearly a tension between the lovingly remembered past and the empty present, highlighted by the alliterated ‘much missed’, and made even more explicit in the second line with its stress on ‘now’ and ‘were’. The dactylic rhythm is also the ideal vehicle for the echoing effect of her voice: ‘how you call to me, call to me’. This effect is emphasized by the triple rhyme of ‘call to me’ with ‘all to me’, in the first verse and in the second, the internal rhyme of ‘you’ with ‘view’ in the first line and ‘knew’ in the third.

The poem opens with an exclamation, ‘how you call to me, call to me.’ The second verse initiates a series of questions: ‘Can it be you that I hear?’ and in the third verse ‘Or is it only the breeze …?’ The exclamation and the questions are indicative of his unsettled state of mind, living in the happy past ‘when our day was fair’, longing to see her, “Let me view you then’. The extent of his longing is conveyed through the word ‘you’ which is constantly repeated – three times in the first verse and four in the second. But ‘our’ occurs only once; otherwise they are separated, ‘me’ and ‘you’. In the second verse, his question is in the present tense, ‘Can it be you that I hear?’ but his memories are, of course, in the past, ‘as when I drew near … where you would wait … as I knew you then’. The third verse takes place in an uncertain present, ‘is it only the breeze?’ The energy and momentum generated by his passionate desire to see Emma have given way to a lifeless list of words drained of vitality: ‘listlessness’, ‘dissolved to wan wistlessness’, ‘no more’. Wan means pale and Hardy coined the word wistlessness, perhaps thinking of the opposite of wistful meaning yearning. These words, with their onomatopoeiac sibilance (repeated s sounds) convey the sound of the breeze. They conform to the dactyllic rhythm of the first two verses but have none of the earlier energy. The last line of the third verse ushers in the stumbling loss of rhythm in the last verse. ‘Heard no more again far or near?’

The verbs and the sense of movement have been shared between Hardy and Emma. In verse one he misses her, she calls saying that now she is as she was when they first met. In verse two he asks if it is her he hears, he begs to see her, he remembers drawing near to the town (as he hopes he is doing to her voice now). Meanwhile she is (in his memory and heart) standing, waiting for him. But in the third verse it is only the breeze travelling, not the woman he longs to see. She is dissolved, heard no more. And the verbs (apart from ‘is’) are present participles, ‘travelling’, ‘being’; they have no impetus. Everything is falling apart. And in the fourth verse, whose rhythm falters just as Hardy says he does, the present participles persist: ‘faltering’, ‘falling’, ‘oozing’, ‘calling’. There is no finite verb in the verse; no source of energy at all. The present participles reflect the poet’s hopelessness. Nothing is happening. Emma cannot be rediscovered. He is left with a sense of her calling in the winter of his despair.

Hardy, as so often, provides a wintry setting to convey his misery: ‘leaves … falling, / Wind … from norward (northward, the coldest quarter)’. The insistently alliterated ‘thin through the thorn’ gives a feeling of pain from the thorn bush, and vulnerability to the cold with the word ‘thin’ even though technically it describes the wind’s passage. The dactyllic rhythm has disintegrated completely by this point, in fact there is no sustained rhythm in the verse. The sense of disintegration is added to by the emphatic cesura in the first line:

“Thus I; faltering forward,/ Leaves around me falling,/ Wind oozing thin through the thorn from norward, /And the woman calling.” The ‘aw’ sound in ‘faltering’ and ‘calling’ is repeated throughout the verse in ‘forward’, ‘falling’, ‘thorn’ and ‘norward’.

The rhythm actually enacts the faltering; the poet’s virtual inability to go forward and his sense of cold misery (norward) and of the woman ‘calling’ is given us through the repeated vowel sound that echoes throughout the verse. The last words in each line are feminine rhymes, forward and norward, falling and calling. Each is followed by a comma except for the last with its full stop. Somehow this has the effect of reflecting the poet’s stumbling, halting attempts; the stress (the poet’s effort) followed by the light syllable (drained of energy) and then all progress paused or stopped at the comma and final full stop. Brilliant.

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Role of Fate in Hardy’s The Mayor of Casterbridge

The novel The Mayor of Casterbridge deals with the theme of fate and its role in one’s life. It clearly evokes that life in general is a mere episode of drama where fate governs one’s life and not the divinely conscious power. The novel shows the fate of Henchard and the situations which is uncontrolled by his hands but governed by his fate leading to his tragic fall.

The fate and destiny of Henchard started off with his drunkard behaviour where he sold his wife Susan and Elizabeth Jane to Richard Newson in the inn for five guineas. The fate of doom is destined for Henchard after this event where Henchard intentionally did not sold his wife and daughter but it was out of his intoxication to alcohol. The fate and his destiny led him to Casterbridge in the quest of his wife and daughter where he starts a new life owning his own agricultural farm business.

Henchard’s fate was destined to be complicated and the things he wished could be attained was not under his hands. Henchard was able to see the desire he wants but different situations enabled him to not grab the desire he wants. It was the fate that controlled his wife and the actions of his past revolved around him playing with the situations around him. For instance, when Susan came back along with Elizabeth Jane she gave a letter to Henchard to meet secretly and demanded to remarry again. But Henchard could not get marry Susan anymore as he already was in a relationship with Lucetta Templeman whom he had a relationship while Susan was away from him. The desire of Henchard to be with his own wife could not be fulfilled and attainable for him as the different situation arouses in his life governing his fortunes as well as the misfortunes.

It can also be seen in the novel where fate governed the life of Henchard leading to the downfall of his business. Henchard agricultural farm was going downhill due to the season changes. He wanted Donald Farfrae to help him but soon realizes that he is making a move on his daughter Elizabeth which irritated him and he finally dismisses him. As Henchard saw that Farfrae and Lucetta became close, he decides to hire Jopp and demands to buy a huge amount of grain knowing the season is unfavourable and also believing the word of the astrologer. It all turned out to be opposite as the season became good and Henchard soon grow into a huge debt while Farfrae’s business took off. It was not the fault of Henchard that made him lose his own business but it is the fate that is governing his life.

The another aspect of Henchard’s tragic fall happened not because of his action but of the fate that keeps on revolving his past actions in the present. When Henchard starts to blackmail Lucetta, the furmity woman comes and soon realizes about Henchard who sold his wife and it gave a hard blow to his reputation in the casterbridge and it is also ironic that Lucetta’s letters to Henchard was also thrown into the public shaming her for she ultimately dies. This is also the another aspect of fate where Henchard is a mere puppet of it and the entire situation is uncontrolled and is being governed by fate.

When Henchard realizes that it is only Elizabeth whom he can rely upon at that position, the another play of role of fate took a shape in his life. Henchard already knew from the letters of Susan that Elizabeth is a daughter of Richard Newson and not Henchard it broke his heart and Henchard decides not to let go of Elizabeth from his life despite the truth. The fate still controls his life and Mr. Newson arrives to Casterbridge to visit Elizabeth but Henchard lies to him that she is dead but Newson visits again only to realize that she is alive and Elizabeth hated Henchard for lying. From another lens, Henchard only lied to save himself and needed someone to rely on but the fate governed his life leading to serious tragic fall. Henchard left his home early and both Newson and Elizabeth searched for him only to realize that he is dead but Elizabeth and Farfrae got married through Newson.

Role of Edgon Heath in Hardy The Return of the Native– https://getsetnotes.com/the-role-of-edgon-heath-in-hardy-the-return-of-the-native/

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Matthew Arnold’s The Function of Criticism at the Present Time Analysis

Matthew Arnold begins the essay by recalling the fact that there was a great need for and importance of criticism in English Literature. However the general opinion was that the creative effort of the human spirit is far superior to the critical effort. Even Wordsworth, whom Arnold admired, spoke disparagingly of criticism and said that the critic could not have a sensitivity fine enough to appreciate the finer influences of genuine poetry. According to Wordsworth, the time spent on writing a critique was better spent on original compositions. It is because a false or malicious critique would do much harm but an original composition however dull it might be, would do no harm.

Arnold finds this argument unsustainable. According to him, if a person is genuinely interested in criticism then he shall not spend time in the field of creative effort for which he has no aptitude. He agrees to the view that critical activity may be a lower faculty than creative activity. He also concurs that malicious criticism is harmful. But he does not agree that it is better to give time to inferior creative work than to criticism. He substantiates his point y citing some examples. For example he points out that he cannot imagine that D. Johnson continuing writing plays like, Irene, instead of writhing Lives of the Poets or Wordsworth producing inferior poems such as his Ecclesiastical Sonnets instead of writing the admirable Preface to Lyrical Ballads. Arnold expresses his satisfaction that Goethe, one of the greatest poets, wrote a good deal of criticism. Hence one may us his creative faculty in producing great critical work and not just in the creation of great works of literature and art

However, the exercise of creative faculty for the production of great works of art and literature is not possible in all epochs and all times. Elaborating on this, Arnold says that the creative artist works with certain elements and certain materials. In case of literature this material is in form of ideas. If there is a lack in this material, then creative work is not possible. There may be a period when there is lack of this current of fresh and new ideas. However these ideas are not discovered by the literary artists but it is the business of the philosopher. The literary artist’s work is synthesis and exposition. “The rand work of literary genius is a work of synthesis and exposition, not of analysis and discovery.” He is inspired by a certain intellectual and spiritual atmosphere by a certain order of ideas and deals with these divinely and presents them in the most effective and attractive combinations. From these observations, Arnold makes a very important statement. He says that for the creation of a great piece of literature, two factors must combine—the power of the man and the power of the moment.

Creative activity is possible only when there is a fresh current of ideas and a suitable intellectual environment. It is the function of criticism to create such an atmosphere and such a current of ideas. The critic in all branches of knowledge—theology, philosophy, history, art, science—should see the object as it is in itself, or as it really is. A critic by acquiring a wide knowledge, not merely of literature, but also of other subjects can create an intellectual environment in which a creative artist can flourish. Criticism can establish a current of ideas and out of these new ideas creative epochs would emerge. In Arnold’s opinion, criticism can prepare the ground for the effort of creativity to be successful.

Click to know Analysis of Arnold The Study of Poetry and The Touchstone Method

Arnold is of the opinion that a poet needs to have great knowledge of the world and of human life if he has to produce a work of significance and this requires a great deal of critical effort. Although it is possible to acquire these knowledge from books, Arnold suggests that it can be best acquired from the current of the ideas as they exist in the intellectual atmosphere. As an example, Arnold points out the outburst of activity in England during Shakespeare’s time and in Greece during Pindar’s time. In both these ages, the society was saturated with fresh and new ideas and this intellectual atmosphere was congenial for the production of great creative works. This atmosphere can be cultivated by men of culture and free thought. And it was because of the existence of such men, that Goethe’s works have so enduring qualities whereas Byron’s does not, although both had immense productive power. In other words, Goethe’s productive power was nourished by great critical effort.

Arnold points out that in England, the burst of creative activity in literature during the first quarter of the 19th century was somewhat premature. It had proceeded without proper data or material to work with. There was no national growth and stir of intellect, nor there was the culture and force of learning and criticism as there had been in the Germany of Goethe. There was in the first quarter of the 19th century England, a dearth of the current of fresh ideas which are necessary for a successful creative effort. As a result, English poetry of this period had plenty of energy and plenty of creative force but did not have enough knowledge to reinforce it. In other words, it lacked the critical effort. There was no current of the best ideas, the very material of poetry. It is what, according to Arnold, “makes Byron so empty of matter, Shelley so incoherent, Wordsworth even, profound as he is, yet so wanting in completeness and variety.” Hence due to the dearth of a current of fresh ideas, there is a lack of thorough interpretation of life in the poetry of this period.

Arnold says that some people might point out that there was plenty of stir and activity in the sphere of intellect in the early 19th century brought about by the French Revolution. But Arnold points out that the French Revolution took on a political and practical character and did not for long remain a purely intellectual movement. The Renaissance and Reformation were purely intellectual and spiritual movements and thus were productive of the current of great ideas which could benefit the literature created in that period. No such benefits could come out of the French Revolution for this was a movement of political and practical nature. The result of the Revolution in France was to create an epoch of concentration in England. England withdrew into herself, away from any foreign ideas, fearing that a similar revolution might come about in England.

Arnold then goes on to speak about the essential qualities of criticism. Criticism, says Arnold, should follow the path of disinterestedness. Only then it would prove to be useful. Criticism must be a free play of the mind on all subjects which it touches. It should reject any ulterior or political or practical considerations which might make it biased. Real criticism, Arnold says, is the “free play of the mind on all subjects in order to know the best that is known and thought in this world, without any political considerations.” Criticism should know what is best in the thought and knowledge in the world and make it known to others and in this way, create a current of new and fresh ideas and this should be done with inflexible honesty and ability.

Talking about the contemporary scenario, Arnold finds that the disinterested search for knowledge and the bringing about a current of ideas was lacking in the contemporary criticism. Practical considerations weighed heavily and guided the criticism. Arnold says-“Our organs of criticism are organs of men and parties having practical ends to serve, and with them those practical ends are the first thing and the play of mind second: so much play of mind as is compatible with the prosecution of this practical end is all that is wanted.” However the pitiable state of English criticism does not make Arnold lose his hope. He finds it reassuring that an era of penance following the bloody revolution had made England more receptive to ideas from outside. The epoch of concentration was giving way to an epoch of expansion. Further the advancement in science and technology had given the Englishmen more leisure time for the free play of the mind without taking into account the practical considerations.

According to Arnold, criticism in England had not kept itself to the purely intellectual field because its self satisfaction and complacency is retarding and vulgarising. Real criticism would have the ability to lead away from self-satisfaction towards perfection by making his mind dwell upon what is excellent in itself. As instances of elf[1]satisfaction, which would prove very harmful for the people and nation, Arnold quotes the speeches of two members of Parliament, Adderley and Roebuck. Arnold disapproves strongly of such complacency because while these speakers made hollow and baseless claims for superiority, reports were there in the newspapers regarding child murders caused due to extreme poverty. Arnold is of the opinion that the critics should have brought together the radically contrasting aspects of the contemporary times to shake man out of their complacency. Only then can the human spirit take a step forward towards perfection. Criticism thus had a great function—to bring the best ideas and knowledge of the world to everybody and take man towards perfection by making him realise the absolutely beautiful and perfect and thus conscious of his own imperfections. Criticism should therefore enlarge the horizon of man both mentally and spiritually.

Defining criticism as “a disinterested endeavour to learn and propagate the best that is known and thought in this world, and thus to establish a current of fresh and true ideas”, Arnold then goes on to enumerate the qualities and duties of an ideal critic. Arnold says that the duty of the critic is (a) to learn and understand, (b) to hand on the ideas to others to convert the world, and (c) to prepare suitable atmosphere for further creative genius and writing. In the broadest term, the function of Arnold’s critic is to promote ‘culture’, more specifically that part of culture which depends upon knowledge of letters. Thus, essentially, the critic must propagate noble ideas, he must repeatedly stress them, for only then he can make them prevail.

According to Arnold, the critic should not only be a scholar, a well-read man, a propagandist, a culturist, but also should be impartial, detached and disinterested. Criticism should keep himself free from personal, ulterior, political, economic considerations. The critic’s judgement should never be swayed by any kind of prejudices. It must shun provincialism which may take the forms of excess, ignorance or pathos, and endeavour to be “in the contact with the main stream of human life.” The critic must be disinterested in the sense that he should pursue only the ends of cultural perfection, and should remain uninfluenced by the coarser appeals of the Philistine.

Critical Analysis of Arnold The Study of Poetry

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Tennessee Williams A Streetcar Named Desire as an Expressionistic Play

A Streetcar Named Desire is arguably one of the most important plays of Tennessee Williams. It uses expressionism as a method to fully convey the playwright’s message to the audience. The historical context of the play and the American turbulences are symbolical either in the characters or the images used in the play. The play depicts the inner state of reality of the characters which is translated through their actions. Williams wanted to convey a strong message through action and symbols rather than dialogues which is expressionism.

In the play, the title of the play itself is symbolical where Blanche buys a Streetcar which is named as Desire. The entire play is surrounded with sexual desires and is symbolical of the status of woman in the society. The sexuality of woman was suppressed and hence woman were made dependent on man for everything. Stella is also such a character who completely depends on her husband Stanley and she symbolizes the sexual desire as well as she left her own social life and good status to marry Stanley and fulfill her desires. Blanche comes to New Orleans to depend on both. The car symbolizes the sexual desire of the characters especially Blanche’s as well as Stella’s and Stanley. The couples lack love in their relationship but fulfills sexual intimacy. This representation is achieved through expressionism where the name of the streetcar gives meaning to the character’s behaviour and morality. The status of woman is represented in an ironical way where Stella refused to believe her own sister Blanche who was raped by Stanley.

The character of Blanche is a symbol of South where the turbulences because of political abolition of slavery led to the demise of economic productivity. Blanche led a very prosperous and beautiful life in South living in Belle Reve. She symbolizes the declining economic productivity of South and she pretends to live a luxurious lifestyle in New Orleans which makes Stanley irritated. Blanche’s continuous gossip and hatred towards Stanley makes Stanley to expose her brutal reality and truth. Blanche character mostly represents an expressionism input in the play where the drugs she intakes is expressionistic of her escapism from reality.

There are so many images in the play which also shows a meaning established through expressionism. The “Elysian Field” in the play symbolizes the paradise of North which is economically prosperous than the South. The “meat” is also symbolical of Blanche sexual desire for Stanley as well as “the paper lantern” symbolizes the harsh past of Blanche where her husband was a homosexual and she left him who killed himself as well as her immoral behaviour in Laurel for he was caught having an affair with her own student while working as an English Teacher. All this action is compiled symbolically in the “paper lantern” which the playwright tries to evoke with the help of symbols and images or expressionism. The “Varsouviana” or the blue piano also symbolizes the loss of innocence in Blanche’s character. She lost her innocence because of the outer reality and that is the reason why she dwells in the fictional world where she has everything but she is unable to cope with the reality and hence she indulges herself in alcohol and drugs. This toxicity symbolizes a land of escapism from reality to Blanche.

The character of Stanley symbolizes the North which is economically growing and prospering. As an expressionistic play, the clashes between Old South and North is depicted between the power tussle of Blanche and Stanley. Stanley exposure of Blanche symbolizes the tussle between North and Old South. He exposes her about her dark past and the reasons for her banishment from Laurel for her bad reputation. Stanley’s rape of Blanche is an expressionistic depiction of the death of Old South and the powerful force of North.

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Critical Analysis of Jane Austen’s Persuasion

Persuasion is a novel written by Jane Austen that deals with the love , romance , marriage and reconciliation between Anne and Captain Wentworth. The story is beautifully set in the spa of the town Bath and other places such as Uppercross as well as Kellynch Hall. The major themes of the novel are class consciousness , status of woman in the society , relationships , love and marriage , friendships and others. The novel intrigues the idea of certain love story which never ends but ends with a happy note. 

The theme of class consciousness exists within the early 19th century England. As far as the early writings are concerned , it was woman who always seek for fortune and wealth in a man. Austen represents and breaks certain stereotypes of woman in earlier portrayal of woman in literature. In the novel , one can observe the male characters Sir Walter Elliot who married a wealthy woman Mrs. Elliot and Sir Walter and her daughter’s could no longer become a financial independent family after the decease of Mrs. Elliot.

Critically , Austen is showing the fortune a woman carries and the lifestyle she grants to a family in the novel.After her departure, the family soon moved to the Bath while leaving Kellynch Hall to Admiral Croft.  The stereotyping is dismantled in the novel where Austen portrays a male character named Mr. Elliot actually married a wealthy woman instead of Elizabeth to gain fortune for himself.  This clearly projects that man also seeks a wealthy and rich woman of fortune in the society to raise their social status.

The other dominant theme in the novel is the love and reconciliation. The story revolves around the love affairs of Anne and Captain Wentworth. They were in a relationship seven years ago when Lady Russell tells her to leave him for his poor status. After many years ago, Captain Wentworth came back to Kellynch Hall to visit Mrs. Crofts whose deceased son Richard worked under him for many years. The return of Captain Wentworth not only mesmerized Anne but everyone where he was a man of fortune at present and knows how to welcome the guests. The both couples already had love but the love never ended for they both still love each other but pretended not to say or hint at each other.

The theme of reconciliation happens when Captain Wentworth gives letter to Anne telling his feelings for her and wants an immediate response for him. Anne also felt the same feelings for him and they were later reconciled again and their marriage was setup. 

Jane Austen was a prolific writer who can be considered as an early feminists. She tries to project woman who were different from the representations of woman by man in earlier literary products. Man depicted woman in their ideas but Austen always makes woman the center of the novel and the story revolves around the woman characters. The most essential representation of the woman character is Anne. Anne is the protagonist of the novel but she is also a woman of practical sensibility.

Austen represents woman who are also critical and practical like man and Persuasion has two women namely Anne and Lady Russell. Their practical acumen is laready estbalished when they were suspicious about Mrs. Clay whom they believe will persuade Sir Walter Elliot to fall in love with her. Anne is also critical about Mr. Elliot’s visit at the Camden Place in Bath negating his ulterior motives behind it. Anne’s suspicion about Mr. Elliot is somewhat correct when she gets to realize the truth about him at the later end of the novel when Mrs. clay exposes him and the reason why he married a wealthy woman and he never helped Mrs. Clay get back the property from West Indies. Critically , Austen represents woman issues and shows woman of practical acumen in the novel. 

Austen has also represented the sisterhood in the novel of Persuasion. The novel shows the idea of sisterhood where woman supports each other and it turns out that Anne and Lady Russell shows a bond of sisterhood and shares each other. Lady Russell’s shows concern over Anne when she was in relationship with Captain Wentworth before and she persuaded Anne to leave him for her own good. However , when Anne marries Captain Wentworth she was able to help Mrs. Clay retain back her own property from the West Indies and Captain Wentworth gladly helped her. This reflects a sense of sisterhood. 

Austen writing style has always include many families and relatives. This makes the story complicated and confusing as there are many relatives and family backgrounds. The family of Mr and Mrs Musgroves are related to Anne as Mary, Anne’s sister  married Charles Musgrove.

The daughter of Mr and Mrs Musgroves added some intense story in the novel where the readers are amused by the development of love entanglements in the novel. Henrietta firstly fell for Captain Wentworth but later Captain Wentworth shifted to Louisa. This entanglement dis not affect Anne when Louisa had an accident. In the month of February when Mary sends a letter stating that Captain Benwick and Louisa’s engagement , it gave a sense of relief to Anne. The letters in Austen novel plays a significant role where letters has always given a surprising and astonishing news to the characters and it also fully asserted the same in the novel of Persuasion.

Critical Analysis of Jane Austen Sense and Sensibility

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Critical Analysis of Dylan Thomas Fern Hill Poem

Surrealism – The poem has surrealistic elements where the poet is recalling his own childhood experiences which is quite magical and paradise in the farm and isolated world of fern hills. He visualizes the happy days and compares it to the greenery of grass implying youthful happy days. The logic is suppressed in the poem and the poet is enjoying the world of nature and the sensory is giving him a sense of pleasure. He personifies Time to a manly figure and pleads Time so that he can still enjoy climbing and play like a “huntsman” and “herdsman” with the calves. This is all a surrealistic flights of imagination and he is glorifying himself as a man of importance as he calls himself as the “prince of the apple towns”.

Allusion– There are few allusions in the poem. The poem alludes to the Bible from the Book of Genesis where God created the universe and the first human being namely Adam and Eve. The poet reminisces that when the universe was all dark with a morning dew which was shining to that of the time when Adam and Eve was created. The lines “The sky gathered again
/So it must have been after the birth of the simple light” suggests the creation of the universe from the Bible and the poet is able to visualize it to compare the beauty of the farm he stays in during the night. The lines of “And nothing I cared, at my sky blue trades, that time allows/
In all his tuneful turning so few and such morning songs/ Before the children green and golden/
Follow him out of grace” is an allusion to the German legend of Pied Piper who goes around the town removing rats and taking away with him but when the townspeople refuse to pay him money he also took kids along with him leading to death or infected with rats diseases. The allusion in the poem signifies the death of his childhood.

Symbolism – There are few symbolism used in the poem. The “sun” is a symbol of young child. Adam and Maiden in the poem symbolizes Adam and Eve from the Bible. The “simple light” he mentions is from the Bible when God says that “Let there be light” and the universe was created and he is referring to the light and symbolizes the universal creation of life. The “lamb white days” symbolizes the childhood happy days.

Pastoral Life – The poem is filled with rural and rustic life. There are elements of pastoral sentiments which the poet recollects the life of the childhood days where the scenery is beautiful and gives a temperament of happy soulful life. He was famous among the barns and sang to the horn and could hear the sound of barking foxes. He also felt the song coming from the church on the sabbath days running from the pebbles of “holy streams”. He sees the field as higher than the houses and see the chimneys from the factories for he felt that everything is greenery and beautiful. During the night time, the sound of the owls can be heard for he is blessed to sleep near the stables and horses flashing into the dark. This aspects of life is very much pastoral and rural life in contrast to the modern society.

Self-Realization – The idea of self-realization is one of the most important aspect of his writing and themes. He realizes his childhood experiences and the refrain “Time let me” contains a weight of regret. He regrets not experiencing and enjoying the childhood life and even states that it is a “childless land”. The “childless land” also gives weight to his inner regret of missing his childhood life. The self realization is important for the poet to understand the beautiful innocence of happy days from childhood days. He feels the necessity to invoke Time to held him the green days of his life while he is chained “like the sea” implying while he is dreamy and being surreal in his thoughts.

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Kingsley Amis Lucky Jim as a Campus Novel

A campus is a closed world which denotes a self-sufficient educational premise. Whenever, the world is closed, there are possibilities of ‘intrigue’, ‘suspense’, ‘politics’, ‘romance’ and even ‘injustice’ there. The academic world is presented fully with its minute details. Campus novel includes any action based on the following relationships:

1. Role of teachers / professors in campus

2. teacher- student relationship

 3. Student- student relationship maybe love relationship, rivalry, etc.

4. Academic issues: research, syllabi,

5. Academia- society relations 6. Teaching-learning processes, etc.

Lucky Jim represents this genre justifying all the aspects mentioned above.the following issues are discussed in it.

 1. The struggle for the entry in the Job: Jim Dixon, lecturer in medieval history at a red brick university in the English Midlands. He is expected to perform all his duties rigorously in and around the campus.

 2. Concern about losing the probationary position in the department: To confirm a permanent post, he tries to maintain a good relationship with his absent-minded head of department, Professor Welch. He is expected to participate in all activities organized by the Head of the Department, may it be a tea-party, ball dance, get- together, etc. he is not good at singing. Still he is not to refuse any task given to him.

3. To establish his credentials the candidate must also ensure the publication of his first scholarly article. He writes the article and submits to the editor of a journal, Mr. Caton.

4. Plagiarism: He eventually discovers that the editor to whom he submitted it has translated it into Italian and passed it off as his own.

5. Personal Life entangled with academic: His behaviour with his colleagues is entangled with the family of Mr. Welch. He sympathizes with Margaret who is deceiving him. Bertrand, Mr. Welsh’s son, is playing intrigues with Christine as well as Carol. Most of the relations are affected by their personal or academic benefit.

 6. University-Community inter-relationship: Public lecture on “Merrie England”: Dixon takes much efforts to present his views on the topic. But, the tension makes him drink before the lecture. Though, it is admired by the students and other members of society, he is fired from the job.

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