Posts

Posted on

Theme of Appearance and Reality in Shakespeare’s “Hamlet”.

William Shakespeare(1564-1616) was one of the greatest dramatists and poets of the Elizabethan era. Dr. Samuel Johnson in his essay Preface to Shakespeare called him as a poet of “nature”. He wrote 154 sonnets and 37 plays during his lifetime. He towers all the playwrights in the English Literature and is also known as the “Bard of Avon”. Shakespeare shows major influences from the Italian philosophers and contemporary dramatists such as the University Wits who paved a way for Shakespeare in the field of literary drama.

                   The conflict between appearance and reality in Shakespeare’s Hamlet(1601) brings forth the temperament of horror and also unfolds the characterization of the characters. The theme can be seen in a lens of psychoanalytic criticism of the idea of “self”. The individual “self” is divided into two and things seem to appear can be deceptive of what is in reality. The play is weaved with this theme and the opening of the act throws insights into the theme in the speech of Marcellus about the ghosts “faded on the crowing of the cock” during the birth of Christ and “no spirit dare stir abroad” to wander around and “No fairy takes , nor witch hath power to charm” at that time. The speech shows the theme of the appearance of the ghost in light of the Elizabethan folk belief about supernatural existence in contrast to the reality who appeared to fulfill the unfinished business.

                   However, the theme can also be seen in the speech of Hamlet who states that his “customary suits of solemn black” nor “windy suspiration of forc’d breath” nor “ the fruitful river in the eye” nor “the dejected ‘haviour of the visage” can tell the grief and sorrow of his emotions. He states that these emotions reside “within which passeth show” and things “seems” are the “actions that a man might play” to appear sorrowful and pain to others and his dresses do not made him appear grief but reside within him.

                   Hamlet’s first soliloquy evokes the theme and leads to a questionable doubt of her mother’s chastity and loyalty. He states his father had been “two months dead” and highlights that his mother “married with mine uncle” and compares her to “Niobe” who would have “mourn’d longer”. Hamlet categorized woman as “ Frailty, thy name is woman!” in a state of doubt of her mother’s appearance towards the entire situation which becomes deceptive to Hamlet’s in oppose to the reality of what it seems to be.

                    The theme also unfolds the characterization of the characters. The development of Polonius character is depicted with the theme. He shows a morally upright character to his son Laertes who was about to depart to France stating “ Give thy thoughts no tongue” and “be thou familiar, but by no means vulgar”. He means to suggest that Laertes should not speak what he is thinking and to make a bond of friendship with certain boundaries. He further tells him “Give every man thine ear, but few thy voice” and borrowing the money could “oft loses both itself and friend”. His statements contradicted to the individual he appeared to his son when he asks Reynaldo to “make inquiry of his behaviour “ before he visits him. It throws insight into the character of Polonius to be a man of practical sensibility in reality and contrast to the man he showed to his son.

                   Furthermore, the character of Claudius is also evoked with this theme and is seen in the soliloquy of Hamlet. Hamlet states that “one may smile , and smile and be a villain” in the light of Claudius’s character after he received the knowledge from the ghost about the “treacherous murder” of his father by Claudius. The lines is suggestive of Claudius appearance to be a man of sophistication and statesman who is able to manage the state affairs but in reality is a murderer. It can be read from a psychoanalytic criticism of the idea of “self” where the outer self is only the half percentage an individual show it to others and the inner self is hidden inside. Claudius has been hiding his inner self and his guilt inside and creates a dissembler in outer self to appear a man of political statesman.

                     The theme sets the binary of doubt and conscience and it is seen in the illusion as expressed by Claudius on Hamlet’s lunacy on “why he puts on this confusion”. The other characters were deceptive of Hamlet’s behaviour and Claudius decided to resolve or apprehend the issue to know if the case is in relation to Ophelia’s love as “we may of their encounter frankly judge;/ And gather by him, as he is behav’d, / If’t be the affliction of his love or no/ That thus he suffers for”.

                     Furthermore, it can also be seen in the famous soliloquy of Hamlet who questions and tries to set a philosophical conscience towards the entire situation and life stating “To be, or not to be, that is the question:” regarding his position and “take arms against a sea of troubles ,/ And by opposing end them?” to all the sufferings at once. He goes on to question that who would like to “bear the whips and scorns of time,” from “The opressor’s wrong, the proud man’s contumely,/ The pangs of despis’d love, the law’s delay,/ The insolence of office, and the spurns” where the good one’s bear the mistreatment as the “unworthy takes”. Hamlet’s further employs that the fear of death “ makes cowards of us all” and the “native hue of resolution” is weakened with the excessive thinking. The last line “ And enterprises of great pith and moment, / With this regard, their currents turn awry,/ And lose the name of action” foretells the tragedy in the play. It forecasts the action of Hamlet in the upcoming scene where his action of avenging Claudius is procrastinated and “turn awry” while killing Polonius and hence it “lose the name of action”.

 In addition to this, the theme of appearance and reality layers out the gradual realization and redemption in the character of Claudius. Polonius statement to Ophelia that people often “sugar o’er The Devil Himself” by their “ devotion’s visage And pious action” strikes Claudius’s mind to the road of redemption which he said in an aside that it is true and the act of moral speech “lash that speech doth give my conscience” bringing forth the remorse and guilt in the character of Claudius.

                     The theme of conflict appearance and reality heightens the binary of doubt and conscience when Hamlet tells ophelia that she should join a nunnery. Hamlet’s speech throws insight to the theme where he says that “I am very proud, revengeful ,ambitious; with more offences at my back than have thoughts to put them in imagination to give them shape or time to act them in” clearly showcases the creation of doubt in the mind of Ophelia which becomes deceptive to her. He constantly hints towards the deception implying that “ God hath given you one face, and you make yourselves another” where he states that Ophelia seems to be ignorant to chastity as she makes “ wantonness your ignorant”. Hamlet’s speech is a pun of expressing the deception of reality where the appearances can mislead the reality. Ophelia’s speech  is in opposition to the doubt which Hamlet has set and she tries to reason through her conscience where she “have seen what I have seen, see what I see” implies that he was once a jovial person who was the “observ’d of all observers” but out of his “sweet bells jangled” had worn out the “tune and harsh” form of “blown youth”.

                    The application of play within a play develops the nexus of doubt and conscience and brings forth the redemption on the face of Claudius .The players acted the same scene as narrated by apparation that Claudius poured the poison on King Hamlet’s ear resulting his death. On the other hand, the emphasis is more given on the love between the King and Queen in representative to King Hamlet and Gertrude where the King subtly states she will marry to a second husband “when thy first lord is dead”. The queen promises to the King that she will remain widow forever and curses herself. After the King is murdered , the “poisoner wooes the Queen with gifts; she seems loth and unwilling awhile, but in the end accepts his love”. The play clearly reflects on the chastity towards Hamlet’s mother whereas Claudius interrupted the play giving a clear markings of doubt on his face that it was a “foul murder” and establishes the reasoning and conscience of matured confession of Claudius for his sins as he says is marked of Cain in the Bible which “smells to heaven”. He says that his “ stronger guilt defeats my strong intent” and asks for forgiveness to wash his sins to “white as snow”. He was pleaded with remorse stating that “ My fault is past” and begs for the redemption towards his “foul murder”. He cries in sorrow that his heart is “black as death” and his soul is struggling to be free.

               Therefore , in conclusion we can say that the entire play is weaved with the theme of conflict between appearance and reality. It brings forth the characterization of the characters. It also enabled the binary oppositions of doubt and conscience among the characters. The theme sets a darker approach in the opening scene. The theme is also looked from the psychoanalytic criticism which can be interpreted as “self” where the outer self is a disguise appearance and inner self is the hidden reality of an individual. Hence , the play is effective in the structure of the plot and the theme is well established in the play.

Posted on

William Shakespeare’s Hamlet as a Tragedy

The play Hamlet follows the Aristotlenian concept of tragedy. Aristotle was an ancient Greek philosopher. His writings cover many subjects which consists of physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic , ethics, poetry, linguistics and others. Poetics seeks to address the different structures of poetry and discourses about the idea of tragedy, comedy and epic. It became an influential literary texts during the Renaissance Period as many poets and dramatists relied upon.

        According to Aristotle , “Tragedy is an imitation of an action that is admirable , complete and possesses magnitude; in language made pleasurable, each of its species separated in different parts; performed by actors, not through narration ; effecting through pity and fear the purification of such emotions”. The definition of the tragedy imbue the characteristics in Shakespeare’s play Hamlet. In the play, the action is “admirable” as Hamlet is of a noble rank and the seven soliloquy of Hamlet is able to bring the effect of “pity and fear” which is merely done with a dialogues and speeches and the whole story itself holds the “complete and possesses magnitude “ throughout the play.

        In addition to this, Aristotle regards plot as the “soul of the tragedy” where the actions and incidents took place and there should be “whole” in the plot. He means to suggests that a “whole is that which has a beginning, a middle, and an end” and the “beginning” should be self explanatory and is not a consequence of an antecedent events. In Hamlet, the play opens with the exchange of sentinel duties which is self explanatory and enables the plot to process the “middle and an end” of the tragedy.

        However, he refers to the “law of the probability and necessity” which is the selection of an action but not in an account of what has happened but the possibility of what can happen. Shakespeare’s play Hamlet uses a supernatural apparition as a way of showcasing the treacherous murder of his father by Claudius to be the possibility and its effect of mental hesitation and conflict of moral dilemma necessitates the action in the play which appears as a natural causation as its an Elizabethan piety belief structures that the soul lingers in darkness unless and until the wishes of the dead soul is fulfilled.

       Aristotle also give different formative elements of plot where he propounds the idea of “peripeteia” and “anagnorisis” and “suffering”. The “peripeteia” is the reversal in the play whereas “anagnorisis” is the recognition or the discovery in the play. He employs the idea that when the peripeteia occurs in account of anagnorisis, it is considered to be an effective plot. In Shakespeare’s Hamlet, the discovery is given by the ghosts to Hamlet of his murder by Claudius which in turn reverses the play and hence the plot of Hamlet is very effective in its structure.” “Suffering” is brought about to depict the loss and pain arousing pity and fear through reversal. The knowledge or anagnorisis in the play brings about suffering and due to its negative potential , Hamlet was in a mental conflict of moral dilemma and becomes unaware of his own “hammartia” i.e; lack of resolution as he was trying to reason and locate the guilt in the character of Claudius and hence resulted in “tragic deed”.

        Aristotle employs the idea of plot in comparison to spectacle. He means to suggest that the plot should be able to evoke the emotions of pity and fear without the requirement of the spectacle. He further highlights that the capability of evoking such emotions should arise “when the tragic incident occurs between those who are near or dear to one another”. Shakespeare’s Hamlet is able to evoke such emotions as the position of Hamlet brings forth the empathetic emotions within the plot without the addition of spectacle and secondly the play centered around Hamlet’s family which enabled the plot to effectively exhibit the emotions of pity and fear.

             In addition to this , Aristotle gives important characteristics towards “characters”. He employs that the characters should be “appropriate” and “aim at propriety” which will act accordingly to his type and nature so that the actions will appear more probable and necessary. In Shakespeare’s Hamlet , inability to avenge the murder of his father appears probable and necessary as it is outcome of his own nature and type to be rational and philosophical which enable the emotions of pity and fear.

            He also gives the idea of different kinds of recognition. In Hamlet, as propounded by Aristotle is “arises from the incidents themselves where the startling discovery is made by natural scenes”. Hamlet’s discovery or recognition appears probable and necessary as it evokes the social belief structures and made the action as a natural causation.

           Moreover, the idea of “thought” according to Aristotle is “included every effect which has to be produced by speech”. The element of diction serves as the medium and hence in the play of Hamlet, Hamlet’s speech or soliloquy are enough to produce the effect of pity and fear and establishes their own point of view as well as the effect of the plot to move.

        Furthermore, Aristotle implies on “diction” is that the characters should speak and act according to “appropriate”. The “diction” should also appear natural and the characters to be more “true to life” is brought forth by the “diction”. In Hamlet, in the grave-digger’s scene , the common man speak in the diction of a common language and the noble man speak of a noble language which appears more natural and relate the characters to appear more “true to life”.

       Therefore, in conclusion we can say that Shakespeare’s Hamlet follows the Aristotlelian style of tragedy. The play manages to follow certain rules on plots and characters as well as different formative elements of plot. Shakespeare however did not follow the unity of time, action and place as Aristotle had suggested but the play has followed certain instructions and aspects of tragedy delivered by Aristotle. Hence, Poetics becomes a major influential literary texts during the Renaissance Period and continues to be the influential texts in the present scenario.               

Posted on

Mahasweta Devi’s use of body in “Draupadi” .

Mahasweta Devi was an Indian fiction writer in Bengali and a socio-political activist. She had been honored with literary awards such as Sahitya Akademi Award, Jnanpith Award, Padma Shri and Padma Vibhushan. Her notable works include Hajar Churasir Maa, Rudali and Aranyer Adhikar. Her specialization lay in the areas of Dalit, Adivasi and Marginalized citizens. She mostly focuses on the state and position of a woman in the society and critiques the patriarchal society.

                Draupadi was translated by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak and she was heavily influenced by her writings on behalf of the poor subaltern woman. The themes include patriarchal society, class distinction , oppression against woman, police brutality, power tussle , mythical framework and others. It resembles a subaltern woman who uses her body to resist against the male authority and power.

                Devi’s Draupadi uses a female body as a weapon to protest against the police brutality and male dominancy. Devi critiques the police abnoxious behaviour towards the helpless woman who is caught by the officers and was took in charge by Senanayak in participation of the Naxalite Movement. It is a resistance against the oppression towards the Santhals who were fighting for their land rights and Devi shows the body of a female as an act of resistance towards the oppressors where Dopdi fought against the male dominant power with her bare naked body.

                However, it is also an attack towards the pseudo masculinity. Devi challenges the pseudo masculine power in the patriarchal society. Dopdi is a tribal woman who was captured by the police officers and she fights back against the male oppressors who raped her where “Her breasts are bitten raw, the nipples torn” and is “brought back to the tent and thrown on the straw”. Devi showcases the turn in the life of Dopdi when she refused to wear her clothes and asked Senanayak “Are you a man?”. This question of Dopdi attacks the pseudo masculinity of Senanayak who shows his masculine power to oppress the body of a woman and the “object of your search” becomes the weapon that challenge his masculinity power when she faces him with her naked body and “stand before “ him.

                 In addition to this, Devi draws a parallel comparison to the mythical story of “Draupadi” from “ Mahabharata”. The character Draupadi from the story of “Mahabharata” throw insights into the position of Draupadi who was stripped naked in front of her five husbands of Pandavas. She was eventually saved by Lord Krishna in the story. In contrast to it, Devi’s Draupadi is set in a world of reality where it is devoid of any external agency and divine power. Dopdi was helpless and unarmed who was raped and stripped naked and there were no external power to help her. Devi surfaces the lack of divine power to save a woman from the harsh reality of world in contrast to the story from “Mahabharata”.

               Moreover, Devi shows a strong contrasting perception where the body of a woman is objectified for pleasure and desire is used as a weapon to strike back at the oppressors. Feminist such as Beauvoir in his book The Second Sex (1949) argues that the woman usually is the object toward which the male subject directs his gaze and his desire and Devi breaks the objectification of a woman through Dopdi who “spit a bloody gob at and says, there isn’t a man here that I should be ashamed. I will not let you put my cloth on me. What more can you do ?”. This statement is bold enough to showcase the object of desire as a source of weapon against the pseudo masculine power.

              In addition to this , it also portrays the power tussle between two sexes. Devi depicts a woman who is unarmed and is brutally raped by the armed officers. The use of bare naked body is an attack against the armed institutional power structure who challenged Senanayak to “ Kounter me- come on , kounter me-?”. These words shows the power of a helpless and unarmed woman who is challenging the armed authority with her bare naked body who is “terribly afraid”.

               Moreover, Devi is showcasing against the silency of a woman through her naked body. Dopdi’s statement and her language are bold and she resists the submission towards the police officer Senanayak and tells him “What’s the use of clothes? You can strip me, but how can you clothe me again?”. These words of Dopdi portrays the resistance against the male oppression and breaks the silence. Her refusal to wear the clothes and challenging the authority implies her resistance towards the submissive attitude and calls out the oppressor Senanayak for showing his pseudo masculinity towards her.

                Lastly, Devi’s delineation of the use of a body can be look as a voice from the lens of a Post Colonialism theory. Spivak in her book Can the Subaltern Speak ? talks bout the oppressed classes and highlights that they cannot represent themselves and need someone to speak for. Draupadi shows that the bare bruised body of Dopdi is the vocal against the double marginalization of the third world individuals. Dopdi belonged to the subaltern category and one can observed the oppression against the third world where the body serves as the medium of voice to protest the brutality of the oppressors where “Draupadi pushes Senanayak with her two mangled breasts, and for the first time Senanayak is afraid to stand before an unarmed target, terribly afraid”.

                 Thus, in conclusion we can say that Devi showcases a layer of meanings with the use of body as a source of weapon to protest against injustice. The bare naked body of Dopdi challenges and questions the armed power structure of the first world. Further, it vocals against the oppression and serves as a bridge to resist against the suppression of the first world. Hence, it evokes the breaking of the silency of a subaltern woman whose body served as a mediator to voice out to resist the male oppression from the first world.

Mahasweta Devi The Hunt Summary

Posted on

William Congreve as a Restoration Dramatist.

Click Here to know about Congreve’s The Way of the World as a comedy of manners– https://getsetnotes.com/william-congreves-the-way-of-the-world-as-a-comedy-of-manners/

William Congreve (1670-1729) was a Restoration playwright and a political figure of the British Whig Party. He used a pseudonym Cleophil to publish Incognita or, Love and Duty Reconciled (1692) and gained reputation of men of letters. He also wrote a number of articles about Lady Elizabeth Hastings in Tatler Magazine. His first play was The Old Bachelor(1693) and followed by The Double Dealer(1693) , Love for Love(1695) and The Way of the World(1700). As a playwright, he also wrote one tragedy The Mourning Bride(1697) at Betterton’s Co., Lincoln’s Inn Fields. He was critically attacked by Jeremy Collier in his book A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage(1698) for depicting social hypocrisy and realism of English society.

 Congreve as a playwright exploited with the Comedy of Manners to depict the social reality of the Age. His writings was heavily influenced by the French playwright Moliere. Congreve showed the image of the living standards of the English society which produced humors and farce to the audience. The Old Bachelor(1693) was produced at Theatre Royal ,Drury Lane that combines farce, satire and Jonsonian humors. The play portrays the pretensions and disguises of the  characters who indulge in extramarital affairs. Marriage was not considered sacred and one can see the pretension of Heartwell who is the old bachelor who “pretending to slight women” marries a forsaken lady Silvia by Vainlove and was relieved that their marriage was a pretence as he unravels the truth of his wife through his acquaintances.

                         Furthermore, one can observe in the play that the characters disguises themselves to woo others wife. Belmour , a friend of Vainlove disguises himself into a parson to arrange a marriage between Heartwell and Silvia woos Laetitia ,wife of old banker, Fondlewife. These depictions shows the image of the English society who strictly deviated away from the Puritanical morality while enjoying the social liberty and engaged with social taboos.

                         In addition to this, Congreve was a satirical writer. Love for Love(1695) is considered to be one of the most satirical plays of Congreve. He attacks the hypocrisy of the upper class society and the stupidity and cuckoldry of the upper class. The hypocrisy is seen in the attitude of Mrs. Frail who considers Miss Prue, a country girl as less intellectual and witty. One can observe the jealousy of Mrs. Frail who wanted to marry Ben who was being bond to Miss Prue and supposed to inherit Sir Sampson, his father’s property. Mrs. Frail can be considered as a woman of fortune hunter who tried to woo Ben and enjoy the luxury of wealth he is inheriting.

                           Mr. Foresight is a pretentious character who constantly read the stars and constellations and predict the future. His presence and pretending to know astrology is mocked and criticized by Sir Sampson with ironical comments which brings about laughter and humor to the audience. One can notice that Mr. Foresight was a victim of cuckoldry and Angelica, niece to Mr.Foresight called him a cuckold as his second wife Mrs. Foresight had been sleeping with other man without his knowledge. Congreve uses satire in his approach to attack the behaviour and actions of the upper class society.

                         Congreve’s mapping of the play is creative and he weaves various love intrigues in the play Love for Love. There are many love intrigues which shows the human relationships and bonds of the family. There are a love intrigues between servant and a master who is Valentine and Jeremy and between sisters who is Mrs. Foresight and Mrs. Frail who shares their personal problems and advice each other of upgrading their social life in the society. It can also be seen between a father and a son who is Sir Sampson and Ben where his father is willing to give away his property to his son and the love intrigue between Ben and his profession. Ben is an inactive character in the family matters and loves his profession of working in the sea than marital life and societal etiquette.

                          Congreve delineates the anti-puritanical in his writings. The society was a source of material for the profanity of his writings and exposes the levels of behaviour and breaking of certain social norms and morality. The Double Dealer(1693) showcases the anti- puritanical picture of deception and immorality. Maskwell is a double dealer who wanted to break the marriage between Cynthia and Mellefont and deceives both the parents claiming that Mellefont wants to sleep with Cynthia and his uncle’s wife , Lady Touchwood. One can observe the insanity of Maskwell who addresses the immoral social taboos only to ruin the reputation of Mellefont. The anti- puritanical writing is seen when Lady Touchwood admits her guilt and her desire to his sleep with his nephew Mellefont and the entire plot to ruin the marriage using Maskwell. One can observe the immoral behaviour of Lady Touchwood who broke the social boundaries and indulge in incestuous desires with her own nephew and cuckolding her husband Lord Touchwood to Maskwell who remained adamant to her desires.

                           Therefore, in conclusion we can say that William Congreve was a creative writer and the vocal of Comedy of Manners. His writings depicted the anti-puritan spirit which gradually stops after the Restoration of Charles II. The freestyle and certain immoral standards of living was practiced in the English society to which the Restoration dramatists responded with the use of satire, puns, witty dialogues to evoke a sense of humor and laughter in the audience. Hence, the Restoration Age was famous for its satires and lavish lifestyle which all the Restoration dramatists portrayed and given a new taste of literary style.

    Click here to know about Congreve’s Love for Love as a Comedy of Manners– https://getsetnotes.com/william-congreves-love-for-love-as-a-comedy-of-manners/

    Click Here to know about Comedy of Manners – https://getsetnotes.com/a-short-notes-on-comedy-of-manners/

    Posted on

    A Short Notes on Comedy of Manners

    The Comedy of Manners can be traced to the early development in the Ancient Greek dramatist known as Menander. In England, Ben Jonson heavily influenced this style of comedy with his  Comedy of Humors with the tone and manner of the play. The accomplished practitioner dramatist of Restoration Comedy of Manners was Sir George Etherege. The other dramatists who exploited this style of comedy was William Congreve , William Wycherley and Sir John Vanbrugh. It is also known as high comedy because it involves a sophisticated wit and talent in the writing of the script. It deals with the behaviour of the people.

     The Restoration dramatists were influenced by French dramatists such as Moliere who depicted the social hypocrisy and profanity in his plays L’Ecole des femmes and Le Misanthrope. Historically, Charles II flew to France due to the advent of the Puritan government and his Restoration to England in 1660 gave new literary style of comedy derived heavily influences from Moliere and showcased the English society. The Theatre was restored with Charles II and the strict morality of Puritan government was kept at bay while people enjoyed liberty and immoral behaviour started to grip.

                      The most important feature of the Comedy of Manners was a social satire. It depicts the reality of the Restoration Age and their lifestyle after the end of the Puritan adherence to religious morality. There were pretensions , mockery , puns and seduction expressed explicitly by the dramatists. Congreve’s play The Way of the World(1700) was the last and finest of all his comedies which depicted the social realism and behaviour of the English society.It is in fact “ a world of wit and pleasure inhabited by persons of quality and deformed neither by realism nor by farce”. The characters “are meant to be ridiculous in most of our comedies”.

                         In addition to this, the Comedy of Manner sought to evoke the use of wit combats and dialogues which are polished and crisp. The characters uses wit to fool other characters or seduced woman for their own satisfaction and pleasure. The plot is concerned with an illicit depiction of love affairs and scandalous matters. Sometimes, there are representations of extramarital affairs and depictions of characters who are greedy and fortune hunters. The language carries witty expression of the characters and blows sarcastic comments and irony, for instance in Congreve’s Love for Love(1695) shows Angelica calling her uncle Foresight a “cuckhold” which reflects the sarcasm and irony that his wife Mrs. Foresight had been sleeping with other man.

                     Furthermore, love and marriage are not considered sacred but more mercenary venture. The characters focuses more on lust and wealth and shows less concern towards marriage. They have extramarital affairs and some are fortune hunters who only seek for material desires. There are constant discrimination of the lower class society who were considered inferior and less witty. The hypocrisy of the upper class society is exposed through their behaviour, actions and attitude towards the lower class. It is well suited to delineate the superficial values of the upper society.

                     Moreover, the Comedy of Manners exposes the realism of the Age. The society was undergoing a transitional changes and the major development was the establishment of coffee houses. Dramatists presented the coffee houses as another significant reality to show the insights of its representation. The coffee houses were used for daily public discussions and gossips about the social matter and politics. People gather around the inns and have a talk about the prevailing situation which is clearly depicted in the plays of the Restoration plays of Comedy of Manners.

                    Therefore , in conclusion these were the above characteristic features and traits of the Comedy of the Manners. It is highly sophisticated and superficial in its representations. The dramatists represented the reality of the age as it is and is filled with humor, satire and mockery of the upper class society. Hence, the Comedy of Manners lasted till 1700 as it was culturally and socially inappropriate to represent its values in the society.

      Click Here to Know About Sheridan’s The School for Scandal as a comedy of Manners– https://getsetnotes.com/sheridans-the-school-for-scandal-as-a-comedy-of-manners/

      Posted on

      Geoffrey Chaucer as the Father of Modern English Poetry

      Geoffrey Chaucer(1340-1400) was a Medieval poet and the first English poet to write a poetry in English depicting the English society and culture. He is famous for his unfinished masterpiece known as “The Canterbury Tales“. John Dryden in his work “Preface to the Fables: Ancient and Modern” called him as the “Father of English Poetry” for his contribution on “The Canterbury Tales”. He wrote in east midland dialect to write the poetry in the English phase. He is also considered as “the morning star of the Renaissance”.

      “The canterbury Tales” runs in 17,000 lines written in middle English. There are around twenty nine pilgrims along with the Host named Harry Bailey or Hailey Bailey and the narrator. They were supposed to tell two stories while going and two stories each while returning from St. Thomas Becket’s shrine.The General Prologue introduces the characters and their representation reflects the English cultural notions. He got the sources from Giovanni Boccacio’s “Decameron”.

      He became the first English poet to use English language and depict the English society of his age. He represented the spirit of medievalism which is seen in the prologue of “The Knight” who had fought fifteen battles and is a representation of chivalry, valour and honour in the society. Furthermore, the corruption of the church, antisemitism as well as the lives of lower class society was depicted in prologue of “The Friar” , “The Prioress Tale”, “The Miller’s Tale and The Reeve’s Tale”.

      “The Canterbury Tales” is a social documentation that throws light upon the events that Chaucer had lived through it. The impact of Hundred Year’s War made him to appreciate the bravery and valour of the medieval Knights. As Chaucer himself participated in the war , he beautifully shows the medieval spirit of chivalry of “The Knight” to be of the upper rank society who had fought many battles in the war. In addition to this, the impact of Black Death was that the Jews were blamed for the poisoning of the wells and hence there were some rose of antisemitism. “The Prioress Tale” shows the antisemitic culture of that age where the christian boy praising Mother Mary was considered savage and unholy to the lands of Jewish. The killing of the boy by the Jews shows a large stereotype of Jews to be communal against the Christians.

      Moreover, the impact of the Peasant’s Revolt enabled Chaucer to depict the corruption of the Church as there was a strong agitation and inquiry of the practices of the members of the Church. For instance, “The Friar” is presented as a “wanton” and filled with sexual desires. He was ironically compared to a “lily-flower” that shows the idleness of the Friar. “The Prioress” shows the degradation of the Church where the Prioress shows much concern over her material desires and her clothes in contrary to help the poor paupers . The new learning was being developed as some characters like “The Clerk” shows huge love for books than worldly materials.

      Chaucer used heroic couplet which is a literary device written in iambic pentameter and a rhyming couplet.“The Knight”, “The Friar” and other religious persons are written in heroic couplet as they belong to the upper class society. The heroic couplet is used to show grandiosity and sometimes to heighten the mock heroism filled with humour, irony and sarcasm. He also treated with fabliau which is a device pertaining to sarcastic tone written about the lower strata of society. “The Miller’s Tale, The Reeve’s Tale, The Cook’s Tale , The Shipman’s Tale are the examples of fabliau.

      Therefore in conclusion Chaucer represented the social issues of his contemporary society. These issues had a large impact on the society and hence he documented the medieval society in a realistic approach. Hence, he had set up the writing principles for the upcoming poets and heavily influenced the major poets of the English Literature.